Oligopolies

Visa Inc. is a global payments technology company. It facilitates global commerce and money movement across more than 200 countries and territories among a global set of consumers, merchants, financial institutions and government entities through technologies. It operates through the Payment Services segment. It provides transaction processing services (primarily authorization, clearing and settlement) to its financial institution and merchant clients through VisaNet, its proprietary advanced transaction processing network. It offers a range of Visa-branded payment products that its clients, including nearly 14,500 financial institutions, use to develop and offer payment solutions or services, including credit, debit, prepaid and cash access programs for individual, business and government account holders. It also provides value-added services to its clients, including issuing solutions, acceptance solutions, risk and identity solutions, open banking solutions and advisory services.

Mastercard Incorporated is a technology company in the global payments industry. The Company connects consumers, financial institutions, merchants, governments, digital partners, businesses and other organizations worldwide by enabling electronic payments and making those payment transactions secure, simple, smart and accessible. It provides a range of payment solutions and services using its brands, including Mastercard, Maestro and Cirrus. It operates a payments network that provides choice and flexibility for consumers, merchants and its customers. Through its proprietary global payments network, it switches (authorizes, clears and settles) payment transactions. Its additional payments capabilities include automated clearing house (ACH) transactions (both batch and real-time account-based payments). It offers security solutions, consumer acquisition and engagement, business and market insights, gateway, processing and open banking, among other services and solutions.

AT&T Inc. is a holding company. The Company is a provider of telecommunications and technology services globally. The Company’s segments include Communications and Latin America. The Communications segment provides wireless and wireline telecom and broadband services to consumers located in the United States and businesses globally. The business units of the Communication segment include Mobility, Business Wireline, and Consumer Wireline. Mobility provides nationwide wireless service and equipment. Business Wireline provides advanced Ethernet-based fiber services, Internet Protocol (IP) Voice and managed professional services, as well as legacy voice and data services and related equipment, to business customers. Consumer Wireline provides broadband services, including fiber connections. Consumer Wireline provides legacy telephony voice communication services. The Latin America segment provides wireless services and equipment in Mexico.

Verizon Communications Inc. is a holding company. The Company, through its subsidiaries, provides communications, technology, information and streaming products and services to consumers, businesses and government entities. Its Consumer segment provides wireless and wireline communications services. It also provides fixed wireless access (FWA) broadband through its 5G or 4G Long-Term Evolution (LTE) networks portfolio. The Company's Business segment provides wireless and wireline communications services and products, including FWA broadband, data, video and advanced communication services, corporate networking solutions, security and managed network services, local and long-distance voice services and network access to deliver various Internet of Things (IoT) services and products. It provides these products and services to businesses, public sector customers and wireless and wireline carriers across the U.S. and a subset of these products and services to customers around the world.

T-Mobile US, Inc. is a provider of wireless communications services, including voice, messaging and data, under its flagship brands, T-Mobile and Metro by T-Mobile, and Mint Mobile, in the United States, Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands. It provides wireless communications services primarily using its 4G Long Term Evolution network and its 5G technology network. It also offers a selection of wireless devices, including handsets, tablets and other mobile communication devices, and accessories for sale, as well as financing through equipment installment plans. Its primary service plan offering is Go5G Plus, which includes unlimited talk, text and data on its network, 5G access at no extra cost, scam protection features and more. In addition to its wireless communications services, the Company also offers high speed Internet, which includes a fixed wireless product that utilizes the excess capacity of its nationwide 5G network. It also provides advertising solutions.

Comcast Corporation is a global media and technology company. The Company delivers broadband, wireless, and video through Xfinity, Comcast Business, and Sky; produces, distributes, and streams entertainment, sports, and news through brands, including NBC, Telemundo, Universal, Peacock, and Sky; and brings theme parks and attractions to life through Universal Destinations & Experiences. The Company operates through two primary businesses: Connectivity & Platforms and Content & Experiences. The Connectivity & Platforms business includes two segments: Residential Connectivity & Platforms, and Business Services. Its Connectivity and Content & Experiences business include three segments: Media, Studios and Theme Parks. Sky provides connectivity services to customers across Europe through Sky Broadband, Sky Mobile, and Sky Business. Sky Business extends broadband services and purpose-built products to businesses in Europe.

Charter Communications, Inc. is a broadband connectivity company and cable operator serving more than 57 million homes and businesses in 41 states through its Spectrum brand. Over an advanced communications network, the Company offers a range of residential and business services, including Spectrum Internet, television (TV), Mobile and Voice. For small businesses, Spectrum Business delivers a range of broadband products and services coupled with special features and applications to enhance productivity. For mid-market and large businesses, Spectrum Business provides customized, fiber-based solutions. Spectrum Reach delivers advertising and production for the modern media landscape. The Company also distributes news coverage and sports programming to its customers through Spectrum Networks. The Company offers its customers subscription-based Internet, video, mobile and voice services, with prices and related charges based on the types of service selected.

Union Pacific Corporation, through its principal operating company, Union Pacific Railroad Company, connects over 23 states in the western two-thirds of the country by rail, providing a critical link in the global supply chain. It maintains coordinated schedules with other rail carriers to move freight to and from the Atlantic Coast, the Pacific Coast, the Southeast, the Southwest, Canada, and Mexico. The railroad’s diversified business mix includes bulk, industrial, and premium. Its Bulk shipments consist of grain and grain products, fertilizer, food and refrigerated, and coal and renewables. The Industrial shipments consist of several categories, including construction, industrial chemicals, plastics, forest products, specialized products (primarily waste, salt, and roofing), metals and ores, petroleum, liquid petroleum gases (LPG), soda ash, and sand. Its Premium shipments include finished automobiles, automotive parts, and merchandise in intermodal containers.